Nadene Goldfoot
Alexander the Great, King of Macedonia (356-323 BCE) of the Seleucid Empirewas mentioned in Part II. Seleucus Nicator was one of Alexander's generals. He and the Greek Empire made a vast change in many Jews. They brought on Hellenism which brought on the possibility of Jesus, affecting Bethlehem most of all after the 4th century BCE Judea became surrounded by ring of hellenized cities at the same time while the Jews outside of Judea in the Diaspora which was expanding rapidly in Egypt, Cyrenaica, Syria and Asia Minor were all becoming hellenized. This means that the Greek civilization was spreading all over the Mediterranean and the Middle East. The Greeks' religion was polytheistic, as was the Romans who just used different names for Greek gods.
By the 3rd century BCE, Antiochus IV Epiphanes tried to suppress Judaism and the Hasmonean revolt was the answer. The Romans became involved with the Herods' leadership. Both the books of the Mishnah and Talmud contain hundreds of Greek words which had become absorbed into Hebrew and Aramaic and tomb inscriptions were in Greek. Greek philosophy changed Elisha ben Avuyah who fell away from Judaism. The two civilizations ended with the revolt in 117 CE. Simon the Hasmonean in 138 BCE and again in134 BCE had revolted. Two authors, Josephus, a general captured by Rome, wrote his Jewish history for the Romans.
Because we remember the oil they are fried in, the miracle of oil lasting 8 days when only enough for 1 day. Jews remember with the holiday of Hanukkah an 8 day celebration commemorating the victory of Judah the Maccabee over Antiochus Epiphanes and the following re-dedication of the Temple and altar. They cleaned out the Temple; took statues of gods out-and rededicated but needed oil. Then the miracle happened.
Philo (20 BCE) was the other, an Alexandrian philosopher who once visited Judah from a wealthy Egyptian family and wrote, familiar with Plato with a slight Jewish education, didn't know Hebrew and of the Bible, only knew info from the Septuagint and hellenistic commentaries from Alexandrian Jewry that were allegorical. He wrote that G-d created the world from eternal matter but does not influence it directly. The human soul is derived from the Divine Source and is hence capable of attaining a conception of the nature of divinity not through spiritual perception but by self-immersion, either through mystic mediation or the spirit of prophecy.
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Titus was the Roman emperor (79-81 CE) son of Vespasian, commanded the Roman army in Judea from his father in 70 and then destroyed Jerusalem after a 5 month siege including starvation as written by Josephus in detail. Titus deliberately destroyed the Temple to eliminate the national religious center of the Jews. He was deemed "WICKED".
Rome, the capital of Italy had Jews living there dating to 139 BCE. Rome had overcome Judea and burned down Jerusalem in 70 CE, raiding the Temple and building a statue in Rome of the Event.
Anti-Semitism in Byzantium Emperors and Pope's Decrees
- Emperor Caligula (37-41 CE): Caligula attempted to install a statue of himself, as a god, in the Temple of Jerusalem. This would have offended Jewish sensibilities and led to unrest. Jewish leaders intervened to prevent this. The situation was resolved with Caligula's assassination and the ascension of Emperor Claudius
- Emperor Hadrian (r. 117–138 CE): Hadrian initially showed tolerance toward Jews, allowing them to rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem, but not in its original location. However, after the Second Jewish-Roman War, Hadrian barred Jews from Jerusalem (renamed Aelia Capitolina).
- As a crises or policy changes. The Roman Empire's relationship with Judaism ranged from tolerance and protection to persecution and conflict.
Following a period of rebellion and the destruction of Jerusalem, the region was eventually incorporated into the Byzantine Empire. This is the Eastern Roman Empire with it's capital in CONSTANTINOPLE over a vast area including Palestine in 637. Jews were in Byzantium since the 4th century.
First Council of Nicaea (325 CE): Constantine convened this council to address disagreements within Christianity, particularly the Arian controversy regarding the divine nature of Jesus Christ. The council resulted in the formulation of the Nicene Creed, a statement of Christian belief affirming the co-equality of the Father and the Son, and setting a precedent for future ecumenical councils. It did establish a separation between Christian and Jewish practices, particularly in the determination of the date of Easter. It was deemed "unworthy" to follow the custom of the Jews in celebrating the Easter festival, according to the International Christian Embassy Jerusalem. Wikipedia states that Constantine advocated to "have nothing in common with the Jews, who are our adversaries". He saw Judaism as competition with Christianity. It's true, manywere converting to Judaism.
- Laws against conversion: Constantine enacted laws that aimed to prevent Christians from converting to Judaism and to discourage Jews from seeking converts.
- Punishments for attacking converts: A decree on October 18, 315, stipulated harsh penalties for any Jew who attacked a convert to Christianity, including being "given to the flames".
- Prohibition of intermarriage: Laws were issued forbidding marriages between Jews and Christians, carrying the death penalty for transgression.
- Forbidding Circumcision of Christian Slaves: An edict on October 21, 335, prohibited Jews from buying and circumcising Christian slaves. The circumcised slave would then gain liberty.
The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire in its eastern provinces after the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE. It lasted for over a thousand years, from 330 to 1453, with its capital in Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul).
The emperors developed their specific religious attitudes towards the Jews. JUSTINIAN (527-565) created anti-Jewish laws in his Code, issued a decree in 553 which interfered with the conduct of the synagogue services. Heraclius is reported (614) to have issued an edict ordering the conversion of the Jews. The practice Judaism was forbidden by emperors; Leo in 723, Basil I in 873-4; Romanus Lucapenus in 932-936; But on each occasion, Jewish life re-established itself.
Benjamin of Tudela (1170) found in Constantinople Jews were treated with contempt. Jews remained in the attenuated Byzantine empire until the last remnant was conquered by the Turks in 1453.
In 1391 in Spain, a wave of massacres beginning at Seville swept through the entire Peninsula frightening Jews so bad that many allowed themselves to be baptized in order to escape death. Jews learned to act Christian but held Jewish services in secret, and they were called Marranos
1492: King and Queen of Spain, Ferdinand and Isabella, turned against Jews, told them to leave or convert. The was the Spanish Inquisition of 1478 which actually started earlier. Jewish exiles numbered 150,000 who found refuge in Northern Africa and the Turkish Empire.
MUSLIM CONQUEST
After the Byzantine Empire's rule of Judah ended around 638 CE with the Muslim conquest of the Levant, the region fell under the control of successive Islamic caliphates and dynasties. Mohammad died in 632 CE.
- Rashidun Caliphate (638-661 CE): This was the first Islamic caliphate to rule the region, according to Wikipedia.
- Umayyad Caliphate (661-750 CE): Centered in Damascus, they governed the Levant, which included Judah.
- Abbasid Caliphate (750-969 CE): Based in Baghdad, their influence extended over the Levant.
- Fatimid Dynasty (969-1071 CE): An Egyptian-based dynasty that controlled the Levant.
- Seljuk Turks (1071-1098 CE): They briefly controlled the Levant before the arrival of the Crusaders.
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- European Crusaders (1099-1187 CE): They established the Kingdom of Jerusalem and other entities along the Levantine coast.
- Ayyubid Dynasty (1187-1260 CE): Founded by Salah al-Din, they reunited Syrian and Egyptian Muslims and defeated the Crusaders, regaining control of the Levant.
- 1260: Following their capture of Damascus, a smaller Mongol force under Kitbuqa raided Palestine, reaching as far south as Gaza. They also established a brief garrison in Gaza before being defeated by the Mamluks at the Battle of Ain Jalut.However, it's important to note that the Mongols' presence in Palestine was generally temporary and characterized by raiding rather than sustained conquest and integration into their administrative system. Their ultimate goal was often considered to be Egypt, according to Wikipedia. The Mamluks played a crucial role in pushing back the Mongol advances in the Levant, notably at the Battle of Ain Jalut.
- Mongol forces launched incursions into Syria and Palestine on several occasions: 1300: Another Mongol invasion of Syria led to raids into Palestine, again reaching Gaza and potentially including Jerusalem, though this was a temporary occupation lasting only a few months before the Mongols withdrew and the Mamluks regained control.
- Mamluk Dynasty (1260-1517 CE): This military class of former slaves ruled the Levant, often with sporadic control, until the arrival of the Ottoman Turks. The Mamluk dynasty was a powerful military dynasty that ruled Egypt and Syria from 1250 to 1517. Originally slave soldiers, they rose to power and established a sultanate that became a major force in the Middle East. The Mamluks are renowned for repelling the Mongol advance and ending the Crusader presence in the region.
- Ottoman Empire (1517-1917): They occupied Palestine, including Judah, for over 400 years, notes the Jewish Virtual Library. The Ottoman Empire was a vast, multi-ethnic and multi-religious empire that lasted for over 600 years, from the late 13th century to the early 20th century. It originated in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) and expanded to control much of the Middle East, North Africa, and Southeastern Europe. The empire was known for its military prowess, sophisticated administration, and contributions to art, science, and culture. From the late 16th century, the empire began to decline due to internal issues like corruption and economic stagnation, as well as external pressures from European powers. It ultimately sided with Germany in World War I , losing the war, and was dissolved after the war, with the remaining territory becoming the Republic of Turkey in 1923.
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Edit 8/11/25 9:30am
