The Six Day War:

 Nadene Goldfoot                                                      

The 1967 Six-Day War (June 5–10, 1967) was a brief, pivotal conflict between Israel and its neighboring Arab states—Egypt, Jordan, and Syria—that dramatically reshaped the Middle East and held deep religious and historical significance for world Jewry.  

It was pre-ceded by a building up of tension.  Over 2 years of sabotage activities inside Israel and border incidents,; mostly done by Syrians, who were interested in involving the other Arab states in a further war with Israel.  So Egypt began moving its army into the Sinai Peninsula on May 15, 1967.  Nasser demanded the removal of UN troops who had been posted along the Gaza Strip  and at Sharm e-Sheikh and when the UN secretary-general, U Thant, immediately acceded, Nasser decreed a blockage of the Straits of Tiran so that no Israel shipping would be permitted to go to the port of Elath.                                     

Israel inaugurated diplomatic activity to try and prevent the situation from deteriorating into war, but Nasser moved 100,000 men and 1,000 tanks into Sinai while the other Arab sates rapidly made their preparations and coordinated their moves for a unified attack on Israel, including an agreement between Nasser and King Hussein of Jordan.  

The Arab world was seized with war hysteria and in a preemptive move, Israel  struck on June 5th.  The Israel Air Force went into action, attacking mainly grounded Egyptian planes, over 300 of which were destroyed in 3 hours. Similar attacks almost wiped out the Syrian and Jordanian air forces.  

At the same time, Israel troops attacked Egyptian positions along the Gaza Strip and  in the Sinai Desert.  By June 8, Israel had overrun the Gaza Strip and the entire Sinai peninsula as far west as the Suez Canal and as far south as Sharm e Sheikh. 

A few hours after the fighting had begun, Jordan attacked Israel, despite the message sent to Hussein by the Israel prime minister, Levi Eshkol that if she remained out of the war, she would not be attacked.   The Israeli section of Jerusalem as well as Israel proper and border new Jewish neighborhoods were heavily shelled by the Jordanians.  

So, late of June 5th, Israeli troops began their moves against Jordanian positions and in a pincer mover, starting from the Latrun salient, cut off Jordanian Jerusalem (including the Old City) which fell on June 7th.  The entire area W. of the Jordan river, including Bethlehem, Hebron, and Nablus fell to the Israel army.  

Dancing the Hora when could enter this part of Jerusalem 

                                Paratroopers finally seeing the wall for first time

Emotional scenes were witnessed when the Israel troops first reached the Western Wall, access to which had been barred to Jews for almost 20 years.  (So close-yet so far).  

Precursors: In May 1967, Egyptian President Gamal Abdul Nasser closed the Straits of Tiran, massed troops in the Sinai Peninsula, and formed defense pacts with Jordan and Syria, leading Israel to launch a preemptive military strike.

Meanwhile, the Gaza Strip was under Egyptian control, with harsh military rule imposed on local residents.

Outcome: Israel defeated the combined Arab forces in six days, capturing the Sinai Peninsula, the Gaza Strip, the West Bank, the Golan Heights, and East Jerusalem (including the Old City).  For the first time in 19 years, Jewish people gained access to the Old City of Jerusalem and could pray at the Western Wall (the Kotel), Judaism's holiest site. 

Provoking facts:

First, in June 1967, there was no state of Palestine. It didn’t exist and never had. Its creation, proposed by the UN in 1947, was rejected by the Arab world because it also meant the establishment of a Jewish state alongside.

Second, the West Bank and eastern Jerusalem were in Jordanian hands. Violating solemn agreements, Jordan denied Jews access to their holiest places in eastern Jerusalem. To make matters still worse, they desecrated and destroyed many of those sites.

Third, the Arab world could have created a Palestinian state in the West Bank, eastern Jerusalem, and the Gaza Strip any day of the week. They didn't. There wasn't even discussion about it. And Arab leaders, who today profess such attachment to eastern Jerusalem, rarely, if ever, visited. It was viewed as an Arab backwater.

Resource:

The New Standard Jewish Encyclopedia, pp. 870-873

https://jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-six-day-war

Second Arab-Israel War Of Israel; The Sinai

 Nadene Goldfoot                                                     

In 1956, the Egyptian government seized the Suez Canal from British control. The loss of this vital passageway for international trade infuriated British officials. In response, the United Kingdom partnered with France and Israel in a secret plan to take it back through military force. Later that year, the three countries invaded Egypt and recaptured the canal, but there was a major problem with their plan: the United States.

The Suez crisis happened in the midst of the , when the United States was trying to convince as many countries as possible to side with it over the . U.S. officials were eager for anything that might erode the world’s opinion of the Soviet Union, and they got it in 1956, when Hungarian citizens overthrew their communist government. The Soviet Union responded. Sending its military in to brutally crush the revolution. U.S. President Dwight Eisenhower and his administration pointed to the bloodshed in Hungary as a prime example of Soviet repression. But the Suez crisis distracted the world’s attention, and it put the U.S. in a bind. While the United States was allied with the British and French, American officials knew that the Arab world greatly resented the invasion of Egypt. They realized that, if the United States supported the invasion, it would hurt its own popularity throughout the Middle East, potentially allowing the Soviet Union to grow its influence in the region.

The 1956 Suez Crisis (also known as the Tripartite Aggression or the Second Arab–Israeli War) was a secret military campaign launched by Israel, Great Britain, and France against Egypt from October 29 to November 7, 1957. 

Key Details & Timeline

• The Catalyst: Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal on July 26, 1956, after the United States and Britain withdrew financial support for the Aswan High Dam. HighDam, Military Actions:
• • On October 29, 1956, Israeli forces invaded the Sinai Peninsula and the Gaza Strip.   It ended March 1957.                                                      
    
                                               An Israeli Air Force Meteor in flight
  • Britain and France issued an ultimatum, then launched air strikes and landed troops at Port Said in early November. 
• Resolution & Withdrawal: Heavy political, economic, and diplomatic pressure from the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Nations forced the coalition to halt operations and withdraw. Anglo-French forces left by December 1956, and Israeli forces withdrew from Sinai by March 1957.  
• Aftermath: Egypt retained control of the Suez Canal, Nasser’s political prestige surged, and the event signaled the decline of British and France as global superpowers while expanding US and Soviet influence in the Middle East.

The Aswan High Dam, often called simply Aswan Dam, was built between 1960 and 1970 across the Nile in Aswan, Egypt. One of the world's largest embankment dams, it was developed by the Egyptian government with the help of the Soviet Union to control flooding, increase water storage for irrigation, and generate hydroelectricity. The dam was seen as pivotal to the country's industrialization plans. Like the Aswan Low Dam, which had been completed in 1902, the High Dam has changed the economy and culture of Egypt.                                                       

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Wikipedia +2       

Interactive Encyclopedia of the Palestine Question +1

               

War To Become Independant (1947-1949)

 Nadene Goldfoot                                                  

Across the entirety of Mandatory Palestine in 1947:  The 12 Tribes with Joshua totaled 601,730  at their last census at their arrival.  

• The total Jewish population was approximately 630,000 (about 32% of the total population of roughly 1.97 million).  In the specific area of Jerusalem (part of the historical Judean region), estimates show about 120,000 Jews lived there, including roughly 2,000 in the Old City's Jewish Quarter.  Israel’s War of Independence (known in Arabic as Al-Nakba and broadly as the 1948 Arab–Israeli War) lasted fromNovember 30, 1947, to July 20, 1949.  (almost 2 years)

• Partition Plan: On November 29, 1947, the United Nations passed Resolution 181 to partition British-ruled Mandatory Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states, which Arab leaders rejected. 
• Civil War Phase (Nov 30, 1947 – May 14, 1948): Began as an internal civil war between Jewish and Arab communities within Palestine. (about 6 months worth of fighting) 
• Declaration of Independence: On May 14, 1948, as the British Mandate officially expired, David Ben-Gurion declared the establishment of the State of Israel.                                                        
  
          Haganah on patrol 
• Interstate War Phase (May 15, 1948 – July 1949): The day after the declaration, a military coalition of neighboring Arab nations—including Egypt, Transjordan (Jordan), Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon—invaded the former mandate territory.  Jewish forces were organized mostly in the Haganah , their underground militia made in secret from British forces, and had full-time fighters of about 4,000, mostly members of the Palmah.  The Haganah restricted itself to defense of settlements and communications and limited retaliation. Early in 1948, the 1st attack on a Jewish village (Tirat Tzevi) happed, which proved  unsuccessful.  In larger cities, Arabs used terrorist methods, even back then.  By March the Arabs attacked roads and towns with mixed populations, like the Jerusalem-Tel Aviv Road was fiercely attacked.  Jewish Jerusalem was cut off except  a few light aeroplanes.
  
  
  
• Then, Czechoslovakia  sent the Jews a 1st consignment of arms and the road to Jerusalem was eventually reopened.  Meanwhile attacks on the Jews continued from a Syrian group and Druze.  By April, the Haganah counter-attacked, overrunning Tiberias, opening the road to Galilee, and capturing Haifa and the Katamon suburb in Jerusalem.  By May, Safed and the S. Huleh district came into Jewish hands with Acre and most of W. Galilee.  Internal Arab resistance was ended, but on May 15, with the ending of the Mandate, the states of the Arab League which were armies from Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Egypt, and a token force from Saudi Arabia invaded the country.  
• Jews had to build a road they called the Burma Road for the transport or food and ammunition from the Jewish-held Plain of Aijalon.  Egyptians were held back from attack through the Negev, and occupied Gaza and Beersheba, but here held back by a chain of Jewish settlements and at Ashdod, 21 miles south of Tel Aviv.  They had to give up trying to isolate the Negev.  
• Armistice Agreements: The war concluded through a series of UN-mediated armistice agreements signed in 1949 (ending with Syria on July 20, 1949). In different months, separate armistice agreements were signed with Jordan, Lebanon and Syria. Iraq and Saudi Arabia did not want to sign a thing.  
Outcomes and Impact
• Territory: Israel survived and expanded its territory beyond the original UN Partition Plan boundaries. Transjordan took control of the West Bank and East Jerusalem, while Egypt took control of the Gaza Strip. Approximately 6,373 Jews (including soldiers, militia members, and civilians) were killed during the 1947–1949 War of Independence.

Thirty-Two Years To Be Re-Born Despite Road-Blocks Like A Mandate; Israel

 Nadene Goldfoot                                            

     The Sykes–Picot Agreement was a 1916 secret treaty between the United Kingdom and France, with assent from Russia and Italy, to define their mutually agreed spheres of influence and control in an eventual partition of the Ottoman Empire.   The agreement was based on the premise that the Triple Entente would achieve success in defeating the Ottoman Empire during World War I and formed part of a series of secret agreements contemplating its partition. The primary negotiations leading to the agreement took place between 23 November 1915 and 3 January 1916, on which date the British and French diplomats, Mark Sykes and François Georges-Picot, initiated an agreed memorandum. The agreement was ratified by their respective governments on 9 and 16 May 1916.  The British- and French-controlled countries were divided by the Sykes–Picot line. The agreement allocated to the UK control of what is today southern Israel, Jordan and southern Iraq, and an additional small area that included the ports of Haifa and Acre to allow access to the Mediterranean. France was to control southeastern Turkey, the Kurdistan Region, Syria and Lebanon.              

The Conference was held in San Remo, Italy during April 1920 to talk about problems rising from the Versailles Peace Treaty.  The Zionists proposed the Jewish right to Palestine to be recognized and that Great Britain administer the country to establish the Jewish National Home.  It was to eventually be an autonomous commonwealth.  As a result of this conference, the Palestine Mandate was awarded to Britain.  Key Attendees & Delegations:  Great Britain: Prime Minister David Lloyd George, Foreign Secretary Lord Curzon, and Arthur Balfour (as a consultant);  France: Prime Minister Alexandre Millerand and other French representatives. Italy: Prime Minister Francesco Nitti;  Japan: Ambassador Keishirō Matsui. United States: Present via neutral observers. Other Nations: Representatives from Greece and Belgium also attended. Zionist & Advisory Representatives: Zionist leaders including Chaim Weizmann, Nahum Sokolow, and Herbert Samuel attended to present cases regarding the Jewish national home in Palestine.

The British Mandate for Palestine lasted from 1920 to 1948, formally approved by the League of Nations in 1922 and entering into operation on September 29, 1923.     Key Elements of the Mandate

• San Remo and League of Nations: Britain was assigned the mandate at the San Remo Conference in April 1920 to administer former Ottoman territories. 
  
                                    Lord Arthur James Balfour  (1848-1930)
• The Balfour Declaration: The mandate incorporated the 1917 Balfour Declaration, which pledged British support for establishing a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine. The Balfour Declaration was a 117-word public statement issued by the British government on November 2, 1917, announcing its support for a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine.   It was written as a letter on November 2, 1917, by British Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour.  Recipient: Addressed to Lord Lionel Walter Rothschild, a leader of the British Jewish community, for transmission to the Zionist Federation of Great Britain and Ireland. Core Pledge: The British government promised to "use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object". Lionel was the son of Nathan Mayer Rothchild who was a dominent figure in English finance in the Napoleonic Wars.  Lionel financed the English purchase of the Suez Canal in 1875.  He was also the first Jewish  member of parliament in 1858.  
• Sir Mark Sykes and others held an unrealistic view of "world Jewry", the former writing "I do not think it is possible to exaggerate the international power of the Jews."  Prime Minister David Lloyd George and Foreign Secretary A.J. Balfour, believed that Jews possessed real and significant power that could be of use to them in the war.  Britain did have their anti-Semitism that the naive Jews thought they might use to their advantage.  
• Dual Obligation: Britain was tasked with a "dual mandate"—facilitating Jewish immigration, land settlement, and institution-building while simultaneously protecting the civil, religious, and political rights of the existing non-Jewish Arab majority. 

Escalating Tensions and Termination

• Immigration & Conflict: Large-scale Jewish immigration—accelerated by Nazi persecution in Europe during the 1930s—alongside land acquisitions triggered intense resistance, strikes, and major revolts from the Palestinian Arab community.                                   
  
  Initially sold as scrap for slightly more than $8,000, the ship was acquired by the Hagana (an underground Jewish military organization). Hagana personnel arranged to dock the ship in Europe in order to transport Jews who sought to illegally immigrate into Palestine. (Remember that Palestine was promised to Jews to be the Jewish Homeland ????)  Now It's become illegal for Jews to go there?????
                              
• The ship EXODUS, formerly the President Warfield, which carried 4,554 Jewish refugees to Palestine under Haganah auspices in 1947, was seized by the BRITISH in the Mediterranean after a battle in which 3 Jews were killed.  The refugees, returned forcibly from Haifa to Port de Bouc, France, refused to land there;  in spite of their resistance they were disembarked at Hamburg, Germany  by British soldiers.  The incident did much to swing world opinion against Britain's Palestine policy.  This is but one story of Jews trying to leave Germany, then more of Europe for a safe haven.  
• Policy Shifts: Faced with widespread violence and competing nationalist goals, the British later restricted Jewish immigration and land sales, which in turn drew armed opposition from Jewish groups. Jewish land purchases in Palestine began in the late 19th century under Ottoman rule and continued through the British Mandate, culminating in Jewish ownership of roughly 5.67% to 6.6% of the total land area by the end of 1947.  
• Late 19th Century – 1918 (Ottoman Period): Jewish land acquisition started around the 1880s with the growth of the early Zionist movement (the Yishuv). The Ottoman government placed various restrictions or prohibitions on land sales to non-Ottoman Jews, though sales still occurred. 
• 1917–1948 (British Mandate): The British facilitated and regulated land transactions through an official Land Register. By April 1945, Jewish buyers held about 5.67% of the total land in Palestine, rising to approximately 6.6% (roughly 2 million dunams) by late 1947.   
• Institutions & Private Buyers: Land was acquired through organizations such as the Jewish National Fund (JNF) (founded in 1901), the Palestine Jewish Colonization Association (PICA), and private individuals or companies. Until 1939, more than two-thirds of the land was bought by private buyers and independent investors rather than national institutions. 
• Absentee Landlords: A significant portion of the land—such as the large-scale Sursock Purchases in the Jezreel Valley and Haifa Bay during the 1900s–1920s—was purchased from wealthy, non-Palestinian absentee landowners living abroad (such as in Beirut or Damascus)

• Tenant Displacement and Opposition: When large estates were sold by absentee owners, the resident Palestinian tenant farmers (fellahin) who farmed the land were often displaced or evicted. This caused early local economic disruption and fueled anti-Zionist opposition among the Arab population.  From  what I've learned, however, is that they had asked for outlandish prices and got them from Jews, only too happy to sell and make such a profit so they could go live in Damascus or Paris.  The Arabs could not pay the prices of taxes on the property that the Ottoman Empire expected.  
• Legal and Economic Viewpoints: Proponents and historical analyses note that these transactions were legal purchases of private or concessionary property, frequently involving high market prices paid for underdeveloped, swampy, or arid land that required intensive labor and capital to reclaim. Critics and alternative historians emphasize that even legal market transactions under a colonial or mandatory framework resulted in the structural dispossession of local agrarian communities. 
• Post-1948 Shift: Following the 1948 war and the establishment of Israel, the balance of land control shifted drastically through subsequent Israeli state legislation and military ordinances (such as the Absentees' Properties Law), placing the vast majority of territory under state or national control.
  

• End of Rule: Unable to resolve the conflict, Britain handed the matter over to the United Nations at end of mandate in 1947, terminating the mandate on May 14, 1948, which led to the Israeli Declaration of Independence and the outbreak of war.  The British Mandate for Palestine formally came to an end , concluding nearly 30 years of British rule.  
  
              The announcement of birth of a Nation:  and 5 minutes later the Attack
• David Ben-Gurion (not Golda Meir) formally declared the establishment of the State of Israel on May 14, 1948, in Tel Aviv, as the British Mandate ended. Golda Meir was one of the key leaders who signed the Israeli Declaration of Independence and played a crucial role in raising funds in the U.S. to support the newborn state. 

• Invasion by Arab States: On May 15, 1948—just one day after independence—the armies of neighboring Arab nations (including Egypt, Transjordan, Syria, Iraq, and Lebanon, with support from other forces) invaded Israel.
• The 1948 Arab–Israeli War: This triggered a full-scale war (known in Israel as the War of Independence and in the Arab world as the Nakba or "Catastrophe") that lasted into 1949.