At the turn of the 21st century, France had an estimated 500,000 to 600,000 Jews, most of them Sephardic and of North African origin. This is the second-largest population outside of Israel, and after that in the United States. A quarter of the historic Ashkenazi Jewish population in France was murdered in the Holocaust of World War II. After the war, the French government passed laws to suppress antisemitic discrimination and actions, and to protect Jews in the country.
The North African countries with historical ties to France are Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia. These three nations were all part of French North Africa (Afrique du Nord française) during the colonial era. While France had a presence in other parts of Africa, these three Maghreb countries were specifically grouped together under this designation.
Alfred Dreyfus (1859-1935) French soldier, a captain on the French general staff, was accused---partly from motives of anti-Semitism--of having sold secret documents to Germany and in 1894, was condemned to life imprisonment, the verdict being influence by invalid documents which had not been communicated to the defense. He protested his innocence both of his public degradation in Paris and from his cell in Devil's Island off the coast of French Guiana, but the campaign demanding of a revision of the sentence, instigated by his brother Mathieu and the publicist, Bernard Lazare, initially met a series of rebuffs. The real traitor, ESTERHAZY, was acquitted by a further tribunal in 1898."The Dreyfus Affair" stirred and divided all France; the Catholic clergy, the military, and the right-wing refused to recognize a miscarriage of justice which would lower the prestige of the army. He was finally pardoned by President Loubet, and the Court of Cassation pronounced him completely innocent in 1906.
Hyper Cacher supermarket shooting, killing 4 young men there-victims of Anti-Semitism in France
Image source,Various
Yohan Cohen, 20, worked at the kosher supermarket
Philippe Braham, 45, was a business manager for an IT firm
Yoav Hattab, 21, was a student and the youngest supermarket victim
Francois-Michel Saada, 64, was a former pension fund manager
killer of Jews in Paris Supermarket On 9 January 2015, Amedy Coulibaly, who had pledged allegiance to the Islamic State, attacked the people in a Hypercacherkosher food supermarket at Porte de Vincennes in east Paris. He killed four people, all of whom were Jewish,and took several hostages. Some media outlets claimed he had a female accomplice, speculated initially to be his common-law wife, Hayat Boumeddiene.
In the 1950s and 1960s, many Sephardic Jews emigrated to France from countries such asAlgeria,Morocco, andTunisia, which had gained independence from colonial rule through extended warfare against France.The wars for independence left both sides with considerable bitterness, and Algeria was immersed in civil war for years after gaining independence.
French Jews made Aliyah to Israel
French Jews have immigrated to Israel throughout the 20th and 21st centuries, with significant waves occurring in the 1950s and again in the 2010s.The most recent surge, particularly from 2014 onwards, has been driven by a combination of factors including rising antisemitism in France and a desire to build a future in Israel.
A French Jew
Jews left North Africa as relations in the area became more strained during theSix-Day Warof 1967 between Israel,Egyptand other Arab forces. This increased tensions across the Arab world. The rise of theSecond Intifada, beginning in 2000, contributed to rising tensions with Arab Muslims and Jews feeling less welcome in North African nations. Most have now left the region.
Beginning in the late 20th century, more Arabs from North African nations began to emigrate to France for economic reasons and to escape civil wars in their home nations. Historically numerous North African Arabs had lived and worked in France since before World War II. The Muslim community built the Grand Mosque in Paris in 1929. Its Imam (Si Kaddour Benghabrit) and numerous members helped protect Jews from deportation during the Holocaust..
Another French family making Aliyah to Israel
French Jews have been making Aliyah to Israel for many decades, with numbers fluctuating depending on various factors, including antisemitism, security concerns, economic conditions, and Zionist sentiments.
Here's a breakdown of the number of Jews making Aliyah from France in recent years:
2013: 3,120 French Jews immigrated to Israel, representing a 63% increase over the previous year.
2019: 2,227 individuals immigrated from France, a 7.8% decrease from the 2018 figure of 2,416 immigrants.
2023: 1,100 departures, described as a "historically low number" by the director of the Jewish Agency for Israel in France.
2024 (projected/estimated): The Jewish Agency projected Aliyah numbers from France to range from 3,000 to 3,500. However, in the first half of 2024, the number of olim from France was 506. The total figure for 2024 was expected to be around 2,000.
In the mid-1990s historians renewed a critical study of National Socialism, collaboration, and the responsibility of the Vichy Regimefor deportation of Jews during the Holocaust. They contested the book Vichy France: Old Guard and New Order, 1940–1944 (1972) (published in French as La France de Vichy) by American historian Robert Paxton, who had said the Vichy Regime cooperated with Nazi Germany.
Following an announcement by President Macron in July 2025, France is expected to formally recognize the State of Palestine in September 2025. This decision, which has been met with both support and criticism, aligns France with over 140 countries that have already recognized a Palestinian state.French President Emmanuel Macron has announced that France will recognize a Palestinian state inSeptember. This formal announcement is expected to be made at the United Nations General Assembly in New York.
France's decision to recognize a Palestinian state reflects its long-standing support for a two-state solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. This stance aligns with the positions of its past leaders, including Charles de Gaulle and François Mitterrand, who advocated for mutual recognition and the right of the Palestinian people to self-determination. The move also comes amidst growing international pressure on Israel regarding the humanitarian crisis in the Gaza Strip.
Since the October 7, 2023 attack of Hamas fanatical terrorism, any 2-state solution is now off the table as far as Israel is concerned. Imagine, awarding terrorists with recognition. Hamas are the rulers of the Palestinians-by their vote-now-after such an attack.
The French foreign minister, Jean-Noël Barrot, has stated that France intends to work towards convincing other nations to also recognize Palestinian statehood. A conference co-chaired by France and Saudi Arabia at the United Nations focused on advocating for a two-state solution and international recognition of Palestine, according to The Guardian.
While the recognition is largely symbolic, it represents a significant shift in the diplomatic landscape, particularly as France is the first G7 nation and the first permanent member of the UN Security Council to formally recognize a Palestinian state. This move may encourage other Western countries to follow suit, further increasing international pressure on Israel to engage in a peace process that leads to a two-state solution. The United Kingdom has also announced it would recognize Palestine in September if certain conditions, such as a ceasefire and commitment to a two-state solution, are not met by Israel, according to NPR.
The recognition has been praised by Palestinian Authority officials and welcomed by Saudi Arabia and Jordan, among other countries. However, Israel and the United States have criticized the decision, viewing it as potentially undermining a negotiated two-state solution, says Time Magazine. The United States believes that Palestinian statehood should be achieved through direct negotiations between the parties, not through unilateral recognition.
Trade routes: The Iberian Peninsula was a key destination on Phoenician trade routes, and there's a belief that Judeans, particularly under the reign of King Solomon (961-920 BCE) , were involved in some capacity with Iberian trade, potentially through Phoenician connections.
The Roman Republic began its conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, later known as Hispania, in 218 BCE during the Second Punic War against Carthage.While the Romans had some prior knowledge of the peninsula, their formal involvement and territorial expansion began with the landing of Roman troops in Emporion (modern Empúries). A few Israelites (Judeans) may have been included with the soldiers.
The earliest documented presence of Jewish communities in Iberia (Spain and Portugal) dates back to the Roman period, starting in the first centuries CE, possibly including some who came after the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE. Josephus goes on to report that after the Romans killed the armed and elderly Jewish people of Jerusalem, 97,000 were enslaved.
The dispersal of Jews to Spain after 70 CE wasn't a single deciding factor or organized migration but rather a combination of circumstances, including: Enslavement and deportation:Roman forces, under Vespasian (69-79 CE) and is son, Titus (79-81 CE), after the defeat of Judea, enslaved thousands of Jews and transported them to various parts of the Roman Empire, with some ending up in Hispania.Spain, as a part of the Roman Empire, offered a potential destination for resettlement.Existing Jewish Communities:There is evidence of a Jewish presence in the Iberian Peninsula even before 70 CE, likely due to trade and earlier migrations. These existing communities could have provided support and a destination for those displaced after the destruction of Jerusalem.Therefore, the movement of Jews from Jerusalem to Spain after 70 CE was a result of the traumatic events of the Jewish-Roman wars, including forced displacement and voluntary migration, and the existence of established Jewish communities in the Iberian Peninsula that offered a potential haven for those seeking a new home in the diaspora.
But the Jews aren’t done. The Emperor Hadrian (117-138 CE) had enough of the Jews’ stubborn refusal to maintain a distinct identity. So he turned the screws, passing laws suppressing various religious expressions. (There are Christian martyrs who were killed in this period as the law considered Christianity a sect of Judaism.) Hadrian rebuilt Jerusalem as the colony Aelia Capitolina, and banned Jews from entering. (This ban is continued through the Byzantine period.)
The year 711 was most important. (Is that why gamblers call for come on-7/11?)In 711 CE, the Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula marked a significant turning point for the Jewish population of the region. Far from causing problems, this event brought about a period of relative relief and opportunity for Jews living under the harsh rule of the Visigoths.
Before the Muslim conquest, Jews in the Iberian Peninsula faced increasing persecution under the Visigothic kings who had converted to Catholicism. This persecution included:Forced conversions and expulsions:Jews were mandated to either accept baptism or be expelled from the kingdom, with many choosing to leave for North Africa or Gaul. Restrictions and discriminatory laws:The Visigothic code placed limitations on Jewish life, including prohibitions on intermarriage, owning Christian slaves, and holding public office.Confiscation of property and enslavement: At one point, all Jews were condemned to slavery, their possessions confiscated, and their children were taken from them to be raised as Christians.
The arrival of the Muslims was seen by many Jews as a liberation from this oppressive environment. They actively supported the Muslim invaders, providing assistance in administering conquered territories and even garrisoning captured cities. Under Muslim rule, which became known as al-Andalus, Jews were granted the status of "dhimmis," or protected people. While this status meant they were still considered secondary to Muslims, it guaranteed them the freedom to practice their religion, manage their own affairs, and participate in various occupations, including trade, finance, and scholarship.
This period is often referred to as a "Golden Age" for Jews in Spain, characterized by a flourishing of Jewish culture, intellectual life, and economic prosperity.Why Islam notesnotes that this period brought Jews "nearly instant relief from the persecutions, harassment, and humiliation that they endured under hostile Christian rule". Many Jews from other parts of Europe and the Middle East migrated to al-Andalus, contributing to a vibrant and diverse Jewish community.
Therefore, the year 711 and the subsequent Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula did not cause problems for Jews in living in Iberia; rather, it ushered in a period of relative tolerance and opportunity, especially compared to the preceding Visigothic rule.
Rambam is the acronym for Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon, better known as Maimonides.He was a prominent 12th-century Jewish philosopher, legal scholar, and physician. He lived from 1138 to 1204 and is considered one of the most influential figures in Jewish history.
He left Cordova where he was born at age 13 (1151) to escape the Almohade Persecutions and went to North Africa where he wandered and reached Palestine in1165, all the time writing, such as technical terms of logic as well as establishing thelist of 613 Precepts or Laws, as I call it. He found Palestine in a mess, still recoveringfrom the Crusades, so his family went to Egypt. At first he lived by trading in jewels together with his brother, David, but after David died in1170, he became the physicianto the viceroy of Egypt. Moses Maimon died at 70 and was buried in Tiberias.
After 1492's Spanish ban on Jews, they moved to Portugal and were allowed there for a few more year before they were banned by the Pope.
Archaeological finds like a 1st-century amphora in Ibiza with Hebrew characters indicate potential trade between Judea and the Balearic Islands. Ibiza is a Spanish island located in the Mediterranean Sea, off the eastern coast of the Iberian Peninsula. It is part of the Balearic Islands archipelago, and is situated to the west of the other main Balearic islands, Mallorca and Menorca, according to Tickets Ibiza. Specifically, Ibiza lies approximately 150 kilometers (93 miles) off the coast of Valencia, Spain.
Literary sources, such as Paul the Apostle's stated intention to travel to Spain, hint at the possibility of existing Jewish communities in the region during the mid-1st century CE.
Sephardi Jew in Israel of Today
Sephardic Jews:The Jewish communities in Spain, known as Sephardic Jews, later flourished, particularly during the period of Al-Andalus (Muslim-ruled Iberia).The era of Al-Andalus, especially the period under the Umayyad caliphate of Cordoba, is considered the Golden Age of Judaism in Spain. (During 10th Century it was the capital of the Western Caliphate and was the center of activity of Hasdai Ibn Shaprut. Hasdai ibn Shaprut, also known as Abu Yusuf ben Yitzhak ben Ezra, was a Jewish scholar, physician, diplomat, and patron of science in medieval al-Andalus. He served as a minister at the court of Caliph Abd al-Rahman III of Córdoba, where he was responsible for foreign affairs and diplomacy. Moses ben Enoch established there the 1st talmudic college in Spain in 972 CE.
Jews leaving Spain in 1492
During this time, Jewish communities in Spain achieved significant social, economic, and cultural prominence, producing notable scholars, poets, and thinkers.Despite their contributions, Spanish Jews faced expulsion due to the Pope in 1492, marking a tragic end to their flourishing in Spain.
Al-Andalus refers to the historical period and territory of Muslim-ruled Iberia, spanning from 711 to 1492. It was a significant cultural and intellectual center during the Middle Ages, known for its unique blend of Islamic and Iberian cultures. Middle aged Jews found it hard to leave their homes, businesses, and some Jews became Marranos, or hidden Jews. Today we call them Anusim, as theother word means "pig". Many have returned to Judaism.
Sephardic Jews in 1875
Spain has indeed taken steps to acknowledge and address the expulsion of Jews from its territory in 1492. In 2015, the Spanish Parliament passed a law offering a pathway to Spanish citizenship for descendants of Sephardic Jews who were expelled during the Spanish Inquisition. This law was enacted to compensate for the historical injustices faced by this community. However, the application period for this specific law ended on October 1, 2019.
Requirements and Process for Spanish citizenship (under the expired law)Applicants under the original law were required to meet certain criteria, including:
Demonstrating their Sephardic status through various means, such as certificates from recognized Jewish communities or rabbinical authorities, proof of using Ladino or Haketia (Judeo-Spanish languages), and evidence linking their surnames to Sephardic lineage.
Showing a special connection to Spain, which could include certificates of Spanish history and culture studies, knowledge of Ladino or Haketia, inclusion in lists of Sephardic families historically protected by Spain, or engaging in activities benefiting Spanish persons or institutions.
Passing tests on basic Spanish language (DELE A2 or higher) and knowledge of the Spanish Constitution and social and cultural reality (CCSE). There were exceptions for those from Spanish-speaking countries, minors, and those with modified legal capacity.
Presenting a birth certificate and a criminal record check.
Paying an application fee, initially 100 Euros.
The application process involved online registration, document submission, a notary act, and a final resolution by the General Directorate of Registries and Notary Services.
Challenges and criticisms
While the law aimed to rectify historical injustices, it faced some criticism:
The requirement for applicants to demonstrate a special connection to Spain was sometimes seen as difficult for those who had been disconnected from their heritage for centuries.
The comparison between the expulsion of Jews and Muslims during the Inquisition was also a point of debate, with some historians noting key differences.
Fraudulent applications have also emerged as an issue, leading to investigations and rejection of suspicious cases.
