Safed (Tzfat) My Home In Israel in Dealing With The Crusaders

 Nadene Goldfoot                                               

Here I am back home in front of my apartment in Safed. We lived on the bottom level, so the elevator had to go below the first floor.  I guess we were in the basement.   My husband and I made aliyah in the fall of 1980, and after 10 months of education in Haifa, chose Safed to live in.  The red fiat is our car and we flew to Israel with our German shepherd, a female, Blintz.  Everyone wants to buy her from us.  Notice I'm wearing a scarf, going more "dottee" in Safed.  It has more of a religious overtone here like Jerusalem.  I love it!  I can attend classes right in our own building and am learning so much.

Safed sits on top of a mountain in Israel which is 2,720 feet high. Because of this, one has a splendid panorama and is a summer resort for Israelis.  It's always been an art center.  Many artists just live here part time.     Safed has cool breezes because of its location.  It's most like the Pacific Northwest locales because it has a forest below it of fir trees, stunted compared to the American ones, but nevertheless, a forest of them. I lived there from 1981 to the end of 1985, leaving just before the end of November.  I taught English at the local junior high which was right across the street from me.  I never took my coat off while at school in the winter as the school had no heat.  

Josephus mentioned Safed located in the upper Galilee in his writings, only it was called Sepph then. The Talmud also mentioned it as one of the places where beacons were lit to mark the New Year. 

Fulk, byname Fulk the Younger, French Foulques le Jeune, (born 1092—died November 1143, Acre, Palestine [now ʿAkko, Israel]), count of Anjou and Maine as Fulk V (1109–31) and king of Jerusalem (1131–43). Son of Fulk IV the Surly and Bertrada of Montfort, he was married in 1109 to Arenburga of Maine.                                                   

Crusaders joined up with each other while in Europe and slashed their way to Jerusalem, killing all Jews as they rode. (Eleazar ben Judah of Worms, Germany of the Kalonymus family, (1160-1238), a codifier, Kabbalaist and liturgical poet;  a native of Mainz, Germany,   relates that he had reached the parashah Vayeshev), when two Crusaders entered his house and killed his wife Dulca (Dolce), his two daughters Belet (Belette) and Hannah, and wounded him and his son Jacob who did not escape. Eleazar had been rabbi at Worms since 1201.                             

Massacre of the Jews of Metz during the First Crusade, by Auguste Migette.

 This was even written about in "THE SOURCE" by James Mitchener.  The major ecclesiastical impetuses behind the First Crusade were the Council of Piacenza and subsequent Council of Clermont, both held in 1095 by Pope Urban II, and resulted in the mobilization of Western Europe to go to the Holy Land.  First Crusade actually  began in 1095. Altogether there were about Five Crusades.  

It first appears to be important in crusading times.  Fulk, of Anjou, king of Jerusalem,  built a fortress there in 1140. It became Templar property in 1168 and was destroyed by Sultan Baybars in 1266.  

From 1265 to 1271, Baybars conducted almost annual raids against the crusaders. In 1265 he received the surrender of Arsūf from the Knights Hospitalers. He occupied ʿAtlit and Haifa, and in July 1266 he received the town of Safed from the Knights Templar garrison after a heavy siege.

Baybars’s ambition was to emulate Saladin, the founder of the Ayyūbid dynasty, in the holy war against the crusaders in Syria. As soon as he was acknowledged as sultan, Baybars set about consolidating and strengthening his military position.   'Father of Conquests'), was the fourth Mamluk sultan of Egypt and Syria, of Turkic Kipchak origin, in the Bahri dynasty, succeeding Qutuz. He was one of the commanders of the Egyptian forces that inflicted a defeat on the Seventh Crusade of King Louis IX of France. He also led the vanguard of the Egyptian army at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260, which marked the first substantial defeat of the Mongol army and is considered a turning point in history.

Richard I, byname Richard the Lionheart or Lionhearted, French Richard Coeur de Lion, (born September 8, 1157, Oxford, England—died April 6, 1199, Châlus, duchy of Aquitaine), duke of Aquitaine (from 1168) and of Poitiers (from 1172) and king of England, duke of Normandy, and count of Anjou (1189–99). His knightly manner and his prowess in the Third Crusade (1189–92) made him a popular king in his own time as well as the hero for Christians of countless romantic legends. He has been viewed less kindly by more recent historians and scholars.

                        Actor Henry Wilcoxon as King Richard I.  Wilcoxon was  given the lead role of Richard the Lionheart in DeMille's big-budget film The Crusades (1935) opposite Loretta Young. That film, however, was a financial failure, "losing more than $700,000".

Richard I spent little time in England during his reign as king. Rather than planning for the future of the English monarchy, he put everything up for sale to fund the Crusade that he would lead. He managed to raise a fleet and an army and departed for the Holy Land in 1191.                                  

    Crusaders couldn't tell the difference between Muslims and Jews in Jerusalem, so attacked both.  They almost killed off all the Jews of Europe before they got to Jerusalem.  King Richard set the stage for anti-Semitism in Britain this way.   

Up to this point, the Jews and Muslims of Jerusalem and the rest of Israel had been suffering from out of the blue attacks of Crusaders since 1095; over the past 96 years.  Luckily, Safed wasn't important to the Crusaders like Jerusalem was, but their attacks in Jerusalem affected the development of Safed in becoming quite important.   

      Safed's built on the hill.  

In Mameluke times, Safed was one of the administrative centers of Palestine and Jews already lived there in the 11th century, like 10xx.  The Mamluks (lit. slaves) were a military class that ruled Egypt from 1250 to 1517 and Syria (including Palestine) from 1260 to 1516.Dhimmi Laws surfaced:  Sometime in the first century or so of Mamluk rule, a humiliating oath which Jews had to take when appearing in Muslim courts was reintroduced after a hiatus of some 500 years (the text of the oath, from al-Umarī's Tarif, is found in Stillman, Jews of Arab Lands, 267–68).

              Walking up and down in Safed is good for the heart.  

In the second half of the 14^th century restrictive laws and various vexations followed. Non-Muslim officials were dismissed in Damascus in 1356 and in 1363. At that time Jews and Christians were forbidden to ride horses and mules. They were allowed to ride donkeys only, using packsaddles and mounted so that both feet were on one side of the animal. In public baths they had to distinguish themselves by wearing little bells around the neck, and women had to wear one black and one white shoe. In 1365 Muslim zealots in Damascus searched Jewish and Christian homes for wine and poured the wine they found into the streets and rivers. Restrictive laws were again enforced; Jewish and Christian women were forbidden to frequent the public baths. Although the frequency of these ordinances proves that the discriminatory laws were not systematically kept, it is evident that their periodic enactment humiliated Jews and Christians whose communities were sizably weakened and diminished by the end of the rule of the Baḥrī Mamluks in 1382.

                                                   

By the 16th century, Safed became a most important center of rabbinical and kabbalistic activity.  This is what my friends concentrated on in talking about Safed's history.  We never heard of anything previously.  Writing this article opens the door to history I had never known about. Down below the Old City of Tzfat, towards the base of the mountain, lies the famous cemetery of Tzfat. People come to the cemetery from all over the world, to sit, pray, beseech, or simply be in the company of the great rabbis who are buried there.

The Cemetery's Illustrious "Residents"

The most famous of these rabbis is Rabbi Isaac Luria, also known as the ARI. The ARI came to Tzfat in 1530 from Egypt. He was one of the most famous Kabbalists of all times, and while in Tzfat, legend has it, he learned new Kabbalistic insights while studying with Elijah the Prophet in a cave in the synagogue located above the cemetery - today named the ARI Sepharadic Synagogue. Hassidim revere the ARI, and the anniversary of his death every summer is a time when thousands of Hassidim come to pray at his tomb. The grave of the ARI is the most notable gravesite in the cemetery, with a platform built around it to make it easier for people reach the site. As with all the graves of the great Rabbis in the cemetery, the ARI's grave is painted a deep blue. 

              Isaac Luria

Here lived the kabbalist Rabbi Isaac Luria (1534-1572)  and his pupils, while the rabbinical authorities included Rabbi Joseph Caro (1488-1575).  Luria was born in Jerusalem but educated in Egypt.  By 1570 he lived in Safed, well known because of kabbala, his ascetic life and saintly character. 

                    Joseph Caro
Caro was born in Toledo, Spain, a codifier and the family was expulsed in 1492 from Spain.  They wandered, looking for a home to settle in, and ended up in Constantinople in 1498.  In 1525 he made aliyah to Palestine and founded a Yeshivah in Safed. Here he wrote his code, "the House of Joseph," along with many others which usually were opposed by Ashkenazi scholars who claimed that they were based on the codifications of Spanish rabbis, ignoring the French and German traditions.  Nevertheless, the Shulhan Arukh, printed together with Isserles' strictures, became the authoritative code and is still recognized by Orthodox Jews throughout the world.   His interest in Kabbalah brought him to comment that  religious secrets were told to him by a supernatural messenger, a maggid (preacher).                                       

The Joseph Caro Synagogue in Safed.   It was built in the 16^th century as a large and magnificent synagogue and house of learning, using marble and carved stone. The building was destroyed in the 1759 earthquake but was later rebuilt in a more modest style. The Hassidim who came to Safed in 1777 began praying here, and also took part in its reconstruction after it was destroyed again in the Great Earthquake of 1837. Three men, headed by the Italian philanthropist Yitzhak Guetta, contributed jointly towards its rebuilding over a period of a decade. Yitzhak Guetta heard about the destruction of Safed while in Italy and decided to use his fortune to help rebuild the ruined city. If you look to the floor of this synagogue you will see an Italian marble floor imported from Italy by Guetta. Legend has it that Guetta used only half the budget he set aside for this structure's reconstruction and that he buried the other half in the ground for when the messiah comes.

Safed (Tzfat) is one of the four holy cities. Moreover, it is the highest city in Israel and is located in the northern region.  This is THE Art center.  

Safed had a Hebrew press in 1588.  The Turkish empire was starting to decay in administrative areas which led to a decline in activity in Safed.  It seemed to be caused by wars between the Bedouin tribes.  They all suffered from epidemics and earthquakes, especially the one in 1837 which brought the ruin of the whole community.  By 1845 there were only 400 people in Safed.  By 1948 they had 12,000 Arabs and 1,800 Jews.  

Thought the Arabs had a higher number of people, they fled from Safed after some bitter fighting.  The population by 1990, after I had left, was 16,400.  It's a center also for religious Jews who come to pray at the cemetery. 

 I had friends who made a profession out of presenting a show about Safed.  I even wrote a play and had a theater group aside from teaching during the day.  My husband was a Little Theater actor from Brooklyn and Miami, so now had this outlet, and did we have fun! 

I also had friends that dug out a single family home (we just didn't have any in the 80's all high apartments, in which I was in the top floor once when we had another earthquake!  Anyway, they refurbished this home they dug out of the soil and had themselves a gorgeous home they brought up to date with plants, pillows, etc.    

 Resource:

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Baybars-I

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Crusade#:~:text=The%20major%20ecclesiastical%20impetuses%20behind,go%20to%20the%20Holy%20Land.

https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/mamluks#:~:text=The%20Mamluks%20(lit.,Palestine)%20from%201260%20to%201516.

https://www.safed.co.il/Tzfats-Cemetery.html

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleazar_of_Worms

https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/joseph-caro/

https://www.safed.co.il/Synagogues/Yosef_Caro.html

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(1099)

A Post Chanukah History: Galilee's Safed, Originally Sepph, A Very Ancient Jewish City

                                                                           

Nadene Goldfoot                                                  

Legend has it that Safed was founded by a son of Noah after the Great Flood. According to the Book of Judges (Judges 1:17), the area where Safed is located was assigned to the tribe of Naphtali who was Jacob's 6th son but his 2nd by Bilhah, Egyptian handmaiden of his wife, Rachel, his true love. The history of Safed connects to our Chanukah Story.   The tribe was active in the war against Sisera and

                                                 

Gideon's campaign against the Midianites. Here is Gideon having to choose the men he needs in the next fight, those who lap or those who cup their hands and drink.  

 Naphtali belonged to the northern kingdom of Israel and it was overrun by Arameans in the time of King Baasha, who reigned from 908 to 885 BCE, before a large section of its inhabitants was exiled by Tiglath-Pileser, king of Assyria  and taken away in 721 BCE. Baasha was the son of Ahijah who was the son of Ahitub, priest (Cohen) in the reign of Saul who accompanied the Ark into battle against the Philistines.  He had declared himself king after killing Nadah, son of Jeroboam who became king of the northern tribes and had been the superintendent for Solomon when Solomon died, and exterminating Nadah's family.  He waged war on King Asa of Judah(reigned 915-875 BCE)  in alliance with Ben-Hadad of Aram (Syria), who changed sides, so that Baasha was defeated and had to cede some territory.  

  From the survivors were derived many of the Jews living in Galilee in the 2nd Temple times.  These were the ones who had escaped the Assyrians, who remained on top of the mountain.  They are the proof that there were Jews who were able to remain, and so they remained out of the limelight.      

                                                                       

   (My preoccupation is simple: Judah Maccabee led the first revolt for religious freedom in recorded history, and he is without parallel as a guerrilla fighter and as a man of faith. And he also bequeathed us a pretty excellent holiday.) Jeffrey Goldberg.                                          

Remember that Judah the Maccabee (the Hammerer), a patriot, died in 160  BCE.  He was the eldest son of Mattathias the Hasmonean.  He succeeded his father as leader of the revolt against Antiochus Epiphanes (167/6 BCE).  He inflicted successive defeats on the Syrian armies by his exploitation of ambush, rapid movement, and night attacks.  After taking back Jerusalem in 164 BCE, he  purified the Temple by taking out the idols of these Greek-Syrians and he brought in assistance to the Jewish communities in Transjordan and Galilee.

                                                  

 Alexander Yannai or Alexander Jannaeus Hebrew: יהונתן "ינאי" אלכסנדרוס

Safed's history went back as a Jewish city before the days of King Alexander Yannai as a Jewish city since  Alexander Yannai was the king and high priest in Judea who reigned from 103 to 76 BCE. In those days it was called Sepph, and later Sepphoris.   Alexander Yannai was the son of John Hyrcanus. 

John Hyrcanus was the son and successor of Simon the Hasmonean who ruled from 135 to 104 BCE.  During Simon's lifetime, John was governor of Gezer, but after the murder of his father and 2 brothers by his brother-in-law, Ptolemy, escaped to Jerusalem, where he seized power before Ptolemy could gain control.  He besieged Ptolemy in the fortress of Dok, but had to desist on account of the sabbatical year.  Ptolemy escaped after murdering John Hyrcanaus's mother whom he had been holding as hostage.  

 He turned out to be a despotic, and violent ruler who maintained his authority with the aid of foreign mercinaries.  

                                                 

  Today's Tel Aviv is in the coastal region.  Thanks to John H, it's part of Israel.  

He had set about annexing those Greek cities of Palestine whose inhabitant still refused to acknowledge Hasmonean rule.  After suffering some setbacks, he succeeded in adding the entire coastal region to his kingdom.                               

His political aspirations ran counter to the religious outlook of a large section of the Judean population.  During his reign, therefore, occurred the final break between the Crown and the Pharisees, apparently as a result of Alexander's flouting their susceptibilities while officiating in the Temple.  The Pharisees were a political and religious party during the 2nd Temple period.  They were probably an outgrowth of the Hasideans who made up the backbone of the Hasmonean revolt.  It was a relatively narrow group, closed to the masses, probably made up of the Cohens.  Their goal was to instill the masses with a spirit of holiness by propagating traditional religious teaching. (This was the direction from Moses for the Levites who were Cohens, men who were the descendants of Levi.)  The gulf between the Pharisees and those ignorant of the Law or not practicing it was complete.  Actually, this was the fault of the Pharisees in not setting up schools at this time, which was done later. Chabad is doing a lot of this.  They are rabbis, teachers of the faith.  

                                              

                               Demetrius III of Syria or Theos

In the year 94 BCE, civil war broke out with the Pharisees soliciting the aid of Demetrius III of Syria who defeated Alexander near Shechem in 88 BCE.  6,000 Jews  who served in Demetrius' army, realized the implications of the situation, and went over to Alexander who succeeded in regaining his hold upon the country and took a ferocious vengeance on his former opponents.  At the end of his reign, Alexander tried to complete his conquests in Transjordan, and died while besieging Ragaba.

Let's remember that Mohammad was born in 570 and died in 632. A lot of Jewish history has been happening in Eretz Yisrael.                                                        

       Safed or Tzfat in the 19th century

Tzephat (Hebrew) for Safed, identical with the fortified village of Sepph in Upper Galilee, was mentioned by the General-turned-writer for the Romans, Josephus.  Safed is mentioned also in the Talmud as one of the places where beacons were lit to mark the New Year.  It first appears to be of importance in crusading times.  Fulk of Anjou, King of Jerusalem, built a fortress there in 1140 CE.  It became Templar property in 1168 and was destroyed by Baybars in 1266.  

                         Rabbi Isaac Luria (1534-1572) Kabbalist born in Jerusalem, educated in Egypt, living in Safed from 1570 on. Hayyim Vital, his pupil, recorded his teachings.  In Mameluke times, Safed was one of the administrative centers of Palestine and Jews already lived there in the 11th century.  In the 16th century, Safed became a most important center of rabbinical and kabbalistic activity.  Here lived the kabbalist Rabbi Isaac Luria and his pupils, while the rabbinical authorities           

   included Rabbi Joseph Caro. Rabbi Yosef (Joseph) Caro, 5248-5335 (1488-1575 CE), is most famous as the author of the Shulchan Aruch, the Code of Jewish Law. He was born in Toledo, Spain during the Inquisition years and fled from that country at the age of 4, with his family together with myriads of Jews who were banished from Spain in the year 5252 (1492 CE). His family wandered from city to city, from country to country, not finding a safe haven until they settled in Constantinople (Kushta), Turkey.  He went to Palestine, founding a yeshivah at Safed.  Here he wrote his code Bet Yoseph (House of Joseph) from 1550-1559.                                                 

 A Hebrew press was established in Safed in 1588.

The Turkish empire (Ottoman Empire) led to an administrative decay which caused Safed's administrative decline which was greatly affected by the wars between the Bedouin tribes.  Epidemics and earthquakes, especially the great earthquake of 1837 brought about the ruin of the community, which in 1845, numbered only 400.                                                                                     

In later times, the population fluctuated and in 1948, Safed was inhabited by 12,000 Arabs and 1,800 Jews.  Despite their numerical superiority and better strategic position, the  Arabs fled from Safed after some bitter fighting. 

 The population by 1990 was 16,400. In 2008, the population of Safed was 32,000. According to CBS figures in 2001, the ethnic makeup of the city was 99.2% Jewish and non-Arab, with no significant Arab population. 43.2% of the residents were 19 years of age or younger, 13.5% between 20 and 29, 17.1% between 30 and 44, 12.5% from 45 to 59, 3.1% from 60 to 64, and 10.5% 65 years of age or older.

                                                 

The city is home to a relatively large community of Haredi or orthodox religious Jews.                                 

The village of Akbara in the city's southwestern outskirts, which had a population of about 500 Arab Muslims, most of whom belonged to a single clan, the Halihal, is under Safed's municipal jurisdiction.  I know of an Arab family who lived in my apartment which was right across the street from the junior high where I taught English.  She helped me bail out water from my apartment when the water main broke.  That was in 1981.         

 Safed sits on top of a mountain of 2,720 in height.  It has a splendid panorama and is a summer resort.  The development of the city made it a center of art, especially painting. it was an art colony.   There were many art galleries when I lived there from 1980 to the end of 1985. 

                          
This painting is the one I did of my husband in about 1975 in Oregon.  Notice that he is wearing a Conservative sized prayer shawl.   
  The oil painting I did of my husband when in Safed in about 1982 is on the right.  It's looser, done faster.  He's wearing an Israeli prayer shawl, much bigger than the American style.  They really wear it as a tent to pray under.  I saw that from the balcony in the shul in Safed.  Danny was a Levite, 2nd to be called up on a Saturday morning to read from the Torah.  

 

Resource:

The New Standard Jewish Encyclopedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safed

https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/380611/jewish/Rabbi-Yosef-Joseph-Caro-The-Master.htm

What Joseph Caro and his Shulkhan Arukh Said about Painting Pictures of People

 Nadene Goldfoot

The Halakha                                              

My painting of Danny Eskow before we made Aliyah to Israel. oil on canvas.

The Shulkhan Arukh states: "It is forbidden to make complete solid or raised images of people or angels, or any images of heavenly bodies except for purposes of study". ("Heavenly bodies" are included here because the stars and planets were worshipped by some religions in human forms.

An authoritative breakdown can be found in the Shulkhan Arukh, section yoreh deah which takes the literal meaning of פסל pesel as "graven image" (from the root פסל P-S-L, "to engrave." See Exodus 34:1, 4; Deuteronomy 10:1, 3.) The prohibition is therefore seen as applying specifically to certain forms of sculpture and depictions of the human face. In keeping with this prohibition, some illustrations from the Middle Ages feature fantastic creatures—usually animal-headed humanoids, even when the depictions are quite clearly meant to be those of historical or mythological humans. The most well-known is the Birds' Head Haggadah (Germany, circa 1300). Because such creatures as gryphons, harpies, sphinxes, and the phoenix do not actually exist, no violation of the prohibition is perceived in such depictions. This is based on the fact that the Second Commandment, as stated in Exodus, refers specifically to "anything in the heaven above, on the earth below, or in the water below the land." However, it is forbidden to make the four faces on the Divine Chariot (Ezekiel× I) or the ministering angels, because these are believed to be real beings that actually exist "in the heaven above." (Kitzur Shulkhan Arukh 168:1)

The Shulkhan Arukh was written by Joseph Caro (1488-1575) who was a Codifier that was born in Toledo, Spain.  His parents had to leave Spain because of the 1492 expulsion of Jews.  They finally were able to move  when he was 10 to Constantinopole by 1498.  Alone, he moved to Adrianople by about 1518 at the age of 30.  Now called Edirne, this Turkish city of Adrianopole  is close to Turkey's borders with Greece and Bulgaria.  It served as the 3rd capital city of the Ottoman Empire from 1369 to 1453, before Constantinople (now called Istanbul) became the empire's 4th and final capital between 1453 and 1922.                                                            

I had the black and white photograph of my great Uncle Max's grandfather, a Talmud scholar.  From that i created this oil painting of him.  oil on canvas

By 1525 Joseph Caro moved to Palestine and lived in Safed, founding a yeshivah there.  While in Safed, he wrote his code, the House of Joseph (Bet Yoseph from 1550-1559, a commentary of Jacob ben Asher's Arbaah Turim, and also compiled its classical abbreviation, The Prepared Table (Shulkhan Arukh}, collecting the views of previous codifiers and giving his own decisions on disputed points.  

Caro's codes were greeted with sharp opposition, especially by Ashkenazi scholars who claimed that they were based on the codifications of Spanish rabbis, ignoring the French and German tradition.  Moses Isserles was particularly critical.  

Nevertheless, the Shulkhan Arukh, printed together with Isserles' strictures, became  the authoritative code and is still recognized by Orthodox Jews throughout the world.  I lived in Safed from 1981 to the end of 1985.  We had the very old Joseph Caro synagogue there.              

Danny Eskow in Israel, my oil painting was done faster and looser and his prayer shawl was an Israeli one, much larger than the American style.  oil on canvas. We moved to Safed in 1981, a city of art galleries and temporary artists which preserved the old city and also had a new area.  Kabbalist Isaac Luria, the Kabbalist and his pupils lived here, a most important center of rabbinical and kabbalistic activity.  I wrote plays and we produced them with Danny usually the main actor.  One was called, The Rabbi of Safed.  

Caro was a zealous supporter of an older man, the Talmudist, Jacob Berab (1475-1546)  whose ordination scheme was great  and  Caro was one of the 1st rabbis to be ordained by him. Jacob was also born in Spain and was living in Safed where he also headed a yeshiva.   

Caro  was also interested in Kabbalah and claimed that religious secrets were divulged to him by a supernatural messenger or maggid who encouraged the study of Torah and observances of the commandments.  

                                                         

                     The Cattle Dealer.  Marc Chagall, 1912, Le Marchand de bestiaux (The Drover, The Cattle Dealer), oil on canvas, 97.1 x 202.5 cm, Kunstmuseum Basel.

Marc Chagall is a famous Jewish painter born in 1887 who was a post modernist.  He was a Russian-French artist of Belarusian Jewish origin. An early modernist, he was associated with several major artistic styles and created works in a wide range of artistic formats, including painting, drawings, book illustrations, stained glass, stage sets, ceramics, tapestries and fine art prints. Marc died in 1985 in France.  

Resource:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aniconism_in_Judaism#:~:text=The%20Halakha,-Despite%20the%20semantic&text=The%20Shulkhan%20Arukh%20states%3A%20%22It,some%20religions%20in%20human%20forms.

The New Standard Jewish Encyclopedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edirne

https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jewish-artists